MALTA

Malta is a group of small mediterranean islands south of Sicily, that over the centuries suffered various dominations, from the Phoenicians to the Byzantines and the Arabs, until finally being assigned as a feud to the Order of the Knights of Saint John, of Jerusalem, of Rhodes and - from that moment - of Malta, by Charles V in 1530. The Knights of Malta defended the islands from the Turks over the centuries. The Sovreign Military Order of Saint John was founded during the age of the Crusades, in the eleventh century in Jerusalem. Their scope was the assistance and defence of Christianity in the Holy Land. Their flag was, and still is, a white cross signifying peace in a red field signifying the blood of war. Defeated first in Jerusalem and then in Rhodes and Malta, The Order strenuously defended Christianity against the Turks for centuries in legendary battles. Since 1834 the Order has it`s seat in Rome and is the most ancient catholic knightly order existing over the centuries without interruption, a unique example of a state with no territory but with embassys in 65 countries. The Order is still vitally important and is dedicated to philanthropical and hospitaller causes.

The 6th June 1798, eighty vanguard ships of the French fleet anchored off the coast of La Valletta and requested permission to take on water. The knights had always maintained neutrality between warring states, so permission was given - four ships at a time. Three days later an immense French fleet - that even Solimein the Magnificent at the height of his splendour, would have found difficult to put together - appeared on the horizon.

Doublet wrote: "Malta had never seen such a sight in her territorial waters. For miles and miles around, the sea was covered with ships of all dimensions so that their masts resembled a tall forest". The fleet was composed of fourteen passenger ships, thirty frigates and three hundred cargo ships, sailing towards Egypt to begin Napoleon`s campaign. Authorization to take on water was granted but the rule of four ships at a time irritated Napoleon who threatened to enter the port with force. The legendary valour of the knights had somewhat languished at that time and neither valid leaders nor training could have risen to the occasion.

Roderick Cavaleiro wrote: "Of the 200 French knights, 90 Italians, 8 Portughese, 5 Bavarians and 4 Germans, at least 50 were too sick or too old to fight. The cannons, repainted many times to look new, had not fired a shot for over a hundred years but were put into position all the same. Unfortunately however, the gunpowder was useless. The local militia, trained on Sunday afternoons by officers too lazy to learn Maltese, were undisciplined, stupid and terrorized at the idea of taking on the French".

Malta surrendered on 11th June 1798. The Grand Master von Hompesch fled to Trieste in exile. The treasure of the Order was plundered and taken aboard the ship Orient which later sunk, with all it`s precious cargo, off the coast of Abukir. The Polish knights of the Grand Priory of Russia, without waiting for the resignation of von Hompesch, proclaimed the deposition of the same, who abdicated 6th July 1799, and nominated Grand Master the Tzar Paul I, who although a catholic, was not a believer and did not even recognize the Church. So Paul I of Russia became, "de facto" and not "de jure", the 72nd Grand Master of the Order with headquarters in Saint Petersburg. The Tzar nominated Prince Nicholas Soltykoff his deputy.

England however, understood the strategic importance of the island and on the 11th November 1800, Nelson held Malta to seige and the French, after strenuous resistance, were defeated on 5th September 1801. England occupied the island under the pact that they would leave as soon as Napoleon retreated from the Netherlands. But the islands remained in the hands of the English until 21st September 1964 when Malta gained its independence.

EGYPT

The history of Egypt, whether political, economical, cultural or artistic, may be defined so glorious as to have created an Egyptian civilization. However over the centuries, as very often happens, she has not remained at the height of her greatness and through many historical events she fell under the power of the Turks. After Napoleon`s campaign in 1798 and the country`s occupation, Muhammed Ali, an Albanian officer in the Turkish army, was nominated Governor. He obtained permission for his heirs to succede him in that post and his dynasty ruled for over a hundred years.

THE REPUBLIC OF VENICE - 'THE MOST SERENE'

As we get ready to relive the visit of the "Northern Counts" to Venice in 1782, it would be beneficial to recall the importance this city held, economically, politically, culturally and artistically. Her origin goes far back in time and is also drammatic because it dates back to when the population living on dry land sought protection from invading barbarians from the fifth century to the seventhy century, barbarians that had devestated the rest of Northern Italy. The islands of the lagoon were ideal for this purpose and for certain historical situations, the population living on dry land broke away from Byzantine dominion and created their own autonomous life. It was this neccessity for autonomy that brought Venice to fight the Slavs, Saracenes and Dalmations. This started a growth that led Venice to the domination of the Adriatic and laid the base for the Eastern Empire by occupuying ports and trading centers with the help of the Crusades. The most important was the fourth Crusade, in which Enrice Dandalo made Venice the mistress of the Middle East until the thirteenth century. This political fortune brought Venice into competition with the other Maritime Republics, especially Genoa, who retreated from this antagonism after the war of Chioggia. But this war demonstrated that Venice needed a hinterland policy. She had to expand towards the west not only for economical reasons but for military reasons also. She needed to recruit men to defend herself from Turkish attack against her colonial empire. She quickly advanced inland occupying Aquileia, Padua, Verona, the Polesine area, Brescia, Bergamo, Crema, the Romagna area and several cities in Southern Italy. But it was this affirmation of her power that created many enemies. Almost all European political powers came together under the League of Cambrai and after the victory of Aguadello, Venice`s expansion came to a halt. Although in the seventeenth century Venetian politics were hailed as a perfect model of a constitutional machine, this was not the case in the eighteenth century. The decline of the old an glorious Republic was not so much due to the ageing of her ruling class, as much as the declining process in her regional states, which could not adequately resist outside impact. However, Venice still managed to keep in hand the situation and had no difficulty maintaining public order and the control of public opinion, even though there were many precise and serious reasons for malcontent. An ancient attachment and love for the Republic was not replaced by hostility which brings about destruction. This presentation of Venice would not be complete without reference to her artistic and cultural importance, that in spite of a growing decline in the eighteenth century, continued to be a celebrated and singular city. A city of luxury, lovers, poets, absolutely unique for the beauty of her palaces and monuments, for the splendour of her art, for her graceful dialect and the glory of her sea. This explains why the "Northern Counts" in visiting Venice in 1782, when the city was at the height of her decadence, could still enjoy the charm and wonder of this superb city. Notwithstanding the fall of the Republic to Napoleon`s army and the surrender of Venice to Austria with the Treaty of Campoformio, she maintained and still maintains the importance of a glorious and wonderful city.

THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE

In the eighteenth century Russia was ruled by Peter the Great, the most important representative the Romanov dynasty. He came to power in 1689 and his work was of vast proportion. He not only ensured the modernization of Russia using foreign technicians and specialists, but he also took it upon himself to westernize his country by imposing the French language, European fashion and customs, even the European style of beards. He personally visited factories and European industries so that he could create from nothing an industrial activity, overall textile and metallurgic, and develop commerce at home and abroad. But this modernization of Russia imposed not only with authority but also with cruelty, was not felt by the population so the country did not undergo a profound transformation and retained many negative elements which risked the solidity of his grand opus. After successors of no importance, Catherine the Great came to the throne. She was an energetic reformer and seemed to renew the times of Peter the Great. Cultured, ambitious and anxious to please the philosophers, the thinkers of Illuminism, she very soon found herself in open conflict with her husband Peter III, an ignorant and coarse man. She kept relations with Voltaire and D`Alembert, read and appreciated "Spirit of the Laws" by Montesquieu and "Dei Delitti e delle Pene" by Cesare Beccaria. She corresponded with Frederick II of Prussia and with the French encyclopaedists, she left a rich literary production; commedies, memoirs and historical essays. She was called the "northern Semiramide" for the lascivious life she led and her many lovers, of which Josef Poniatowski, Potiemkin, Soltykoff and Prince Aleksej Grigorevic Orlov were but a few. Prince Orlov promoted the coup d`etat and personally assassinated Peter III, bringing Catherine to the throne of Russia. In spite of the fact that she was of German origin, she gave life to many grand projects for Russia, reorganized the administration, favoured all new activities and opened again expansion towards the west. It was during her reign that her son, the future Tzar Paul I, undertook the journey to Venice with his wife.

THE PRUSSIAN MONARCHY

Prussia in the eighteenth century was beginning to be the great military power which it was under Frederick the Great and would continue to be so until the modern era. This monarch`s education was, by his father`s command, most severe. It was based on history, European economics and the harshest military excercise. However, with the complicity of his tutor, he also formed a good literary and philosophical culture. Intolerant of the Prussian environment, he left his country and was accused of plotting against his father; he was put on trial and imprisoned. He came to the throne in 1740 a while taking interest in the problems of his kingdom, he also continued to cultivate his study of literature surrounding himself with thinkers of the new illuministic idea. He was a generous, if somewhat inconstant, protector of artists, philosophers and musicians. He played the flute well and also composed. He was therefore at the cultural center of his time but he also played an important role in international politics. He did not neglect to defend Europe, the prestige that he procured for his kingdom clashing with Russia, using all his gifts as a good politician and great leader.

THE KINGDOM OF NAPLES

In the eighteenth century the Kingdom of Naples was one of the many states in an Italy yet to be unified. The policies of Charles III of Borbonne, King of Naples, were considerable in their effect, thanks also to the active collaboration of the jurist Bernardo Tanucci, professor of the University of Pisa, who became a counsellor to Charles III. During this period in Naples, a new culture was born, promoted by Antonio Genovesi and his pupils. Thus began the Genovesi school of thought which played an important part in the formation of the Neapolitan intellectual class to whom Pagano, Cuoco, Galiani belonged together with Gaetano Filangeri member of the Young Illuminist Reformers. Filangeri, born into a noble Neapolitan family, exalted the function of the illuminated monarch, against the regime of privileges and anarchy, in defense of the poor and the oppressed. The Tanucci period coincided with the flourishing of economic and juridical studies that made Naples one of the most important centers of the illuminism reform. With Ferdinand IV, successor of Charles III, Tanucci`s work was ignored because Queen Maria Carolina could not tolerate the minister`s power. This, together with various insurrectional movements, marked the beginning of the gradual decline of the Kingdom of Naples.