INDIA

In the eighteenth century the Europeans, after the decline of the Mongolian domination, began creating vast possessions in India: first the Portughese and the Dutch and then the French and the English. The French colonies, unsupported by their government, quickly fell under the dominion of the English who remained in India until recent times. In fact it was only in 1947 that England, after much tension and resistance led by the Mahatma Gandhi, conceded India her independence.

KINGDOM OF SARDINIA

During the first half of the eighteenth century the Kingdom of Sardinia was formed by the annexation to Piedmont, thus rewarding the Dukes of Savoy for military merits. After the peace of Aquisgrana though, Piedmont having lost it`s importance as the balance between the rivals Austria and France, the Kingdom of Sardinia closed itself in a policy of isolation that put it almost outside of Italian life. Nearly a century was to pass before Piedmont abandoned this policy and in the nineteenth century played a primary part in the political renewal of the Italian Risorgimento.

DUCHY OF MILAN

The Duchy of Milan in the eighteenth century was under Austrian domination and during this period some important economic and financial reforms were carried out. The impulse given to these reforms by Maria Theresa and Josef II, was such that Lombardy in a very few years was at the head of the Italian economic progress. The tension between the Duchy of Milan and Venice for possession of the hinterland was stifled by the gradual retreat of Venice to her territories and interests.

THE TURKISH EMPIRE

The Turkish Empire lasted from 1300 to 1922. It started as a small emirate that over time, led by various sultans, conquered a vast territory that went from Constantinople to Hungary. Over this long period of time Turkey`s clashes with Venice, her great rival, were important and decisive (for example the battle of Lepanto), for her affirmation in the Mediterranean. Turkish penetration in central Europe got as far as Vienna in 1683 but then gradually retreated, abandoning Hungary and ceding Morea temporarily to Venice. Two years later the Venetian Republic handed back Morea to the Turks and with this act all belligerency with the Turkish Empire ceased. A new enemy, however, substituted Venice: Russia. The Ottoman Empire was the last phase of oriental expansion in the west.

GRAND DUCHY OF TUSCANY

In the eighteenth century this state came to be noticed for the reforms carried out by Duke Peter Leopold, son of Francois of Lorraine and Maria Theresa of Austria. He also came under the influence of the French Illuminism which spread to the whole of Europe. He was flanked by first class men who tired to resolve the society`s problems, such as industry, commerce and the economy.

CHUNG KUO (CHINA)

Little can be said of China`s relations with the west in the eighteenth century. Because of the geographic characteristics of this country, China remained quite isolated until the nineteenth century. In fact the continuous commercial relationship between Venice and the orient should be understood as relations with the Middle East: in fact all products from the Far East were handled by the Arabs, this meant the silk trade also. However we should not think that China was unknown to the western world. The Venetian, Marco Polo in therteen century, in his famous book "The Million", describes the history and the wonders of that land.